There are four basic tenets to the practice of designing constructible steel structures. They are:
1) Simplicity = economy
2) Least weight does not always equate to least cost
3) The fewer the pieces, the more economical the design
4) Efficient connection design = economical design
42 Tips for facilitating the fabrication and erection of steel structures.
1) Show all actual reactions, moments and axial loads for which connections must be designed, and permit fabricators to design and detail the connections to suit their preferences. If readers follow only this rule, they will significantly enhance constructability of the buildings that they design. Showing reactions, moments and member forces, and allowing fabricators to design and detail their preferred connections, will result in the most competitive bids.
2) Use square baseplates with symmetrical anchor rod patterns. Square plates, and symmetrical and repetitive anchor rod patterns, are easy to detail, fabricate and erect. This is a classic example of "simplicity = economy".
3) Frame girders to column flanges. It’s easier to maneuver beams (which are usually smaller than girders) into position between column flanges than it is to frame girders to column webs. Likewise, beams usually have smaller reactions than girders. Economical connections, such as single angle connections, can usually be used for light beam reactions. Single angle connections to column webs offer an additional benefit of eliminating shared bolts with the beam connections on the opposing side of the web.
4) Do not prohibit "one-sided" shear connections, such as single angle connections, unless there are valid reasons for doing so. Some designers arbitrarily prohibit the use of one-sided connections. Properly designed single-sided connections are cost effective, strong and safe to erect.
5) Avoid complete joint penetration (CJP) welds when possible. Some designers arbitrarily require welds to be complete joint penetration welds when alternative welds will work. When designers opt not to design and detail welded connections on the contract documents, the best alternative is to provide steel fabricators with the design forces at welded connections and permit the fabricator’s connection engineer to design the most cost-efficient weld to resist the applied forces.
6) Avoid specifying that connections be designed for "full strength of member". Requiring that connections be able to support the full strength of the member is both vague and usually unnecessary. A better solution is to show the member reactions on the framing plans.
7) Avoid using generic tables requiring beams of certain depths to be designed for conservative reactions. The use of a table listing beam depths, minimum rows of bolts and minimum required connection shear capacities is widespread. A better solution is to show all beam reactions on the framing plans. Connection cost is a significant percentage of the total in-place cost of structural steel. Requiring connections to be designed to have capacities far greater than the actual reactions is wasteful of the owner’s budget and resources.
8) Size columns to avoid stiffener plates and web doubler plates. Stiffener plates and web doubler plates are costly to install. A better alternative is usually to upsize columns so that these plates are not required.
9) Favor bolted connections over welded connections. Most large fabricators use computer controlled beam and angle drill line machinery. The only labor required is that of bolting connection angles to beams and columns. Welded connections introduce another level of complexity and increased chances for human error. While welded connections are fine where required, most fabricators with drill line machinery prefer bolted connections. Welded connections also require a greater level of inspection versus bolted connections.
10) Favor connections that do not require field welding. Field welding is generally more expensive than field bolting.
11) Check that connections are constructible and that bolts or welds can be physically installed. Engineers who delegate connection design to the steel fabricator are still obligated to make sure that their framing is configured in a manner that will permit the steel fabricators to efficiently detail and fabricate the connections.
12) Minimize or avoid skewed connections where possible. While skewed connections can be fabricated, they are generally more expensive than square connections.
13) Avoid skewed connections with large reactions. Beams with large end reactions are often most efficiently framed with double-sided connections - specifically double angle connections where the bolts are in double shear. Double sided skewed connections are more expensive than double-sided square connections, and bolt installation can be difficult depending on the angle of the skew.
14) Avoid steeply skewed beam-to-girder connections with skew angles less than 30 degrees. Steep skew angles often require very large beam copes, which can reduce the strength of the member at the connection. Welds on the acute angle side of steeply skewed single plate connections can be difficult to install. Bolts can likewise be difficult to install. When steeply skewed beams cannot be avoided, heading them off will usually solve the connection problems that would otherwise occur.
15) Orient columns to minimize skewed connections to columns.
16) Orient columns in braced frames square with braced frame members.
17) The fewer the pieces the better. In general, the fewer the pieces of steel there are to detail, fabricate, ship, erect and connect, the lower the cost of steel per ton. The easiest way to minimize the number of beams on a floor is to maximize the span of floor slabs and roof decks.
18) Repetition = economy
19) Avoid framing more than one member to each side of a column. Framing multiple members to one side of a column can complicate connections and lead to problems installing bolts and welds.
20) Modify workpoints on braced frames to simplify connections. Orienting diagonal brace workpoints at the intersection of the faces of columns and beams may require upsizing members due to secondary moments, but doing so can simplify the connection design and reduce the number of bolts.
21) When using W Shape columns, do not use columns smaller than W10’s. W8 columns are too small to enable installation of single or double angle connections to the column web. W10 columns are the minimum size for which such connections can be used. Where space permits W12 columns are even better than W10’s.
22) Check that braced frame connections will fit on the foundations, and that loads can be transferred from the braced frames to the foundations. This may sound so obvious as to not warrant mention; however, a lack of attention to connection details between braced frames and foundations is not uncommon.
23) Do not rely on anchor rods to transfer braced frame shear forces. Anchor rods are usually installed through oversized holes in column base plates. Anchor bolts cannot resist shear until the base plate moves enough so that the anchor rods bear against the edges of the holes. Shear lugs welded to the underside of the base plate or embedded plates cast into the foundation (to which braced frame gusset plates are welded) are best for transferring lateral loads from braced frames into the foundation.
24) Do not specify slip-critical (SC) bolted connections where slip-critical bolts are not required. AISC 360-05 specifies where slip-critical bolts are required. The shear capacity of "SC" bolts is significantly less than bearing bolts. Requiring "SC" bolts where they are not truly required will add unnecessary cost and complexity to connections.
25) Use R=3 for seismic design where possible. Using R=3 avoids expensive "seismic" connection detailing requirements. In areas of low to moderate seismicity where seismic base shear is the same or less than base shear due to wind, there is usually no benefit to be gained by using a seismic response coefficient greater than R=3.
26) Do not use beams with flanges less than 0.30-inch thick as composite beams. ¾-inch diameter headed studs are most often used for composite beam design. The AISC specification requires that beam flanges have a thickness not less than the stud diameter divided by 2.5 unless the studs are aligned over the beam web. Headed studs are normally installed on beam flanges by welding through the metal deck. This usually makes precise alignment of studs over the beam web difficult to achieve. Accordingly, the use of very light beams (W8x10, W10x12, W12x14) as composite beams should be avoided. There is nothing wrong, however, in using these beams as non-composite members.
27) Do not specify 105 ksi anchor rods unless absolutely required. Grade 105 material is difficult to bend and weld if anchor rod repairs are required.
28) Check that column baseplate anchor rods can be installed in piers, columns and footings. Failure to coordinate if anchor rods will fit can lead to RFI’s and potentially costly field modifications.
29) Do not use flange plate moment connections on beams with flanges less than 5 inches for ¾-inch bolts or 6.5 inches for 7/8-inch diameter bolts. Bolts are difficult to install on beams with narrow flanges.
30) Avoid using W shapes to resist torsion. Use rectangular or square HSS sections when torsion cannot be avoided.
31) Increase beam depth to avoid web reinforcing. Beams with large copes at connections should be increased in depth when required, to eliminate the need for web reinforcement or special connections.
32) Understand local fabricator preferences with regards to preferred connection details. Designers should know the preferred practices of the steel fabricators in their area. Do local fabricators prefer to use ¾-inch or 7/8-inch diameter bolts for standard connections? Do local erectors have any issues with regards to field-welded versus field-bolted moment connections?
33) Permit (and anticipate) that fabricators will want to use to use Short Slotted (SSL) or Oversized (OVS) holes to facilitate steel erection.
34) Use "tension only" bracing in lightly loaded braced frames. Cross bracing using single angle braces designed for tension are easy to design, detail and erect.
35) Favor double angle diagonal bracing over HSS and W shape bracing where feasible in braced frames. The sizes of double angle bracing may be heavier than similar strength HSS or W shape bracing; however, the bolts at the ends of double angle bracing members are in double shear and the connections are easy to detail, fabricate and erect.
36) Do not use camber beams in braced frames. Cambering beams in braced frames can cause fit-up problems with the connections.
37) Do not use camber beams that have moment connections. Cambering beams with moment connections can cause fit-up problems with the connections.
38) Consider gravity moments induced by fixity created by drag strut connections. Drag struts are often required to transfer axial loads through floor framing members. Drag strut connections often provide rotational restraint at the ends of members similar to the restraint from moment connections. If drag strut connections provide such rotational restraint, then the gravity moment occurring due to connection fixity must be considered in the drag strut connection and element design.
39) Consider implications of structural steel erection sequence for projects with unusual geometry or framing configurations. Whereas the contractor is responsible for temporary framing or shoring to support the steel while it’s being erected, designers should consider the implication of temporary loads on the framing during construction in order to minimize the likelihood that the steel erector will encounter difficulty in configuring an erection sequence using the framing members required for the final structure.
40) Avoid beam web penetrations where possible. Where unavoidable, try to keep web openings in beams within the middle third of the beam span, centered at mid-depth and no deeper than half the beam depth.
41) Use pipe columns to avoid complexities of skewed connections. Most connections to pipe columns are square connections. Pipe columns are ideal for short columns (no splices) with reasonably small loads.
42) Avoid using W shape columns oriented in the weak axis in moment frames. When more frame stiffness is required, it is better to increase the sizes of those columns in the moment frame that are oriented in the strong axis rather than spending money on costly moment connections to columns bending about their weak axis. Most W14 columns are about three times stiffer in their strong axis than about their weak axis.
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